BACKGROUND: Postpartum depression is a debilitating mental health disorder, which occurs in approximately 6% to 13% of women who give birth in high-income countries. It is a cause of great suffering for women and can have long-term consequences for child development. Postpartum depression can also negatively influence breastfeeding duration and breastfeeding exclusivity (i.e. feeding the infant only breast milk). However, a positive early, and continued, breastfeeding experience may reduce the risk of having postpartum depression. Breastfeeding interventions that increase the duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding may help prevent or reduce postpartum depressive symptoms. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of this review was to assess the effect (benefits and harms) of breastfeeding support interventions, in comparison to standard perinatal care, on maternal postpartum depression. The secondary objective was to assess whether breastfeeding support interventions had an effect on depression symptoms, and whether the effect was dependent on the duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL (Wiley), MEDLINE ALL (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), PsycINFO (Ovid), CINAHL Complete (Ebsco) and several other bibliographic databases and trial registers. The most recent search was conducted in June 2024. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that evaluated educational, psychosocial, pharmacological, alternative (any breastfeeding support intervention that promotes relaxation and stress) or herbal breastfeeding support interventions targeting the prevention or reduction of postpartum depression were eligible for inclusion. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Each title and abstract we identified was screened by two authors independently. Two review authors then independently examined full-text manuscripts to decide if the study met the inclusion criteria. If so, they extracted data from included studies using Covidence software. Two review authors also independently conducted a risk of bias assessment of each study using the RoB 2 tool. We contacted study authors when necessary for more information. We conducted meta-analyses using a random-effects model. MAIN RESULTS: We included 10 RCTs with 1573 participants in this review. Depression was measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) in all studies, where scores range between 0 and 30 (higher scores indicating more depressive symptoms). The studies used a score of over 10 as the cut-off for a diagnosis of depression. Primary outcome It is very uncertain whether psychosocial breastfeeding interventions had any effect on the incidence of postpartum depression immediately post-intervention (RR 0.78, 95% CI 0.23 to 2.70
1 study, 30 participants), but we found low-certainty evidence that psychosocial breastfeeding interventions may prevent the incidence of postpartum depression in the short term (one to three months) post-intervention (risk ratio (RR) 0.37, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.14 to 0.93
1 study, 82 participants). It is very uncertain whether alternative breastfeeding interventions had any effect in preventing the incidence of postpartum depression immediately post-intervention (RR 0.64, 95% CI 0.27 to 1.54
1 study, 60 participants). The short-term time point was not measured. Secondary outcomes It is very uncertain whether psychosocial breastfeeding interventions had any effect on reducing depressive symptoms immediately post-intervention (mean difference (MD) -0.67, 95% CI -1.63 to 0.28
4 studies, 512 participants). There is very low-certainty evidence that psychosocial breastfeeding interventions could reduce symptoms of anxiety immediately post-intervention as measured with the Zung Self-rating Anxiety Scale (SAS), where scores between 45 and 59 out of 80 on the SAS indicate mild to moderate anxiety, scores between 60 and 74 marked severe anxiety levels and >
75 extreme anxiety levels (MD -2.30, 95% CI -4.36 to -0.24
1 study, 100 participants). There was no difference in rates of exclusive breastfeeding immediately post-intervention between those offered a psychosocial breastfeeding intervention and those receiving standard care, but the evidence is very uncertain (RR 1.20, 95% CI 0.96 to 1.51
I AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is low-certainty evidence that psychosocial breastfeeding interventions may prevent postpartum depression in the short term and increase the duration of breastfeeding in the long-term. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of psychosocial breastfeeding interventions on other outcomes. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of alternative breastfeeding interventions on postpartum depression or other outcomes. The included studies did not report any adverse events directly related to the interventions, but it is not clear if this outcome was measured in most studies. Future trials of breastfeeding interventions should be conducted carefully to reduce their risk of bias, and they should be large enough to detect differences between mothers in their mental health.